Table of Studies on Structures with Rocking, Self-Centering and Energy-Dissipating Fuses

System Information
Reference Description of System Frame Configuration Experiment Synopsis Purpose of Research
Azuhata, Midorikawa, and Ishihara 2008 Self-centering system with rocking structural members and yielding base plates Analytical model of a steel MRF was created Analytical seismic response analyses are performed on a full scale steel frame model using an artificial ground motion Examine the behavior and response of the proposed system
Palermo, Pampanin, and Calvi 2004 Hybrid controlled rocking concept with energy-dissipating sacrificial devices for bridge systems Pier and foundation and/or pier and deck section interfaces An analytical analysis of single and multi-degree of freedom bridge controlled rocking systems is outlined Integrate advancements in seismic performance of precast concrete buildings into bridge systems
Bruneau 2007 Author describes the research regarding structural fuse concept in BRB frames, rocking truss piers and steel plate shear walls Steel MRF, steel truss piers and shear walls are examined Review developments in recent hysteretic-based systems and compare with conventional structural configurations Provide a competitive and effective structural configuration for a seismic resistant system
Clayton et al. 2011 Self-centering steel plate shear walls (SC-SPSW) with post-tensioned rocking beam connection PT rocking moment connections allow joint gap opening between VBE and BHE interface while PT elongation provided SC mechanism The system behavior is examined through free body force diagrams, design consideration for the connection are detailed and an analytical model is created and tested Provide an overview and performance evaluation of SC-SPSW and system fundamental behavior through analytical analyses, and provide a performance-based design for the system
Clayton, Berman, and Lowes 2013 SC-SPSW system composed of a steel infill plate with horizontal and vertical boundary elements and PT beam to column connections Steel infill plate surrounded by HBEs and VBEs with PT beam-to-column connections between HBEs and VBEs A series of quasi-static cyclic tests are conducted on SC-SPSW subassemblages To better understand SC-SPSW and component behavior and the impact of certain web plate and PT
Dowden and Bruneau 2011 Post-tensioned rocking moment connection (PT-RMC) which eliminates beam growth by maintaining constant contact of the beam top flange and the column during lateral drift Steel connection which allows gap opening with independently anchor PT chords providing the restoring force The NZ-BREAKSS connection is described in detail and an analytical model is created to examine the behavior Compare the proposed design to other PT-RMC connection designs
Dowden, Purba, and Bruneau 2012 SC-SPSW system utilizing post-tensioned rocking beam connections between the HBEs and VBEs Steel web plate, acting as an energy dissipating element, surrounded by horizontal and vertical boundary elements Moment, shear, and axial force diagrams along the boundary beam are developed based on capacity design principles and are compared with nonlinear cyclic push-over analysis results To develop a SC-SPSW HBE-to-VBE design procedure to select cross-sectional areas of the posttension reinforcement and beam sizes
Freddi, Dimopoulos, and Karavasilis, 2020 Column base connected to high strength post-tensioned bars with friction devices to dissipate seismic energy. The column base is a circular hollow section with rounded edges welded to a circular steel plate to avoid stress concentration. Post-tensioning bars provide a self-centering force while friction devices dissipate seismic energy. Used a quasi-static cyclic load test to analyze the performance of the specimen until failure. Further develop the functionality of a moment resisting frame and determine the efficiency of rounded edges in the column base, as well as post-tensioned bars and friction devices.
Hayashi, Skalomenos, Inamasu, Luo, 2018 Self-centering rocking composite frame using double-skin concrete-filled steel tube columns and energy-dissipating fuses in multiple locations. A braced frame with double-skin concrete-filled steel tube columns made of ultra-high strength steel and a typical all steel moment-resisting frame. Experimental testing of the six one-quarter-scale specimens of the proposed system. To investigate the seismic performance of the proposed system. To determine effective ways in preventing permanent residual deformations.
Hu, Wang, Qu, and Alam (2020) A frame is equipped with dual rocking cores that contain shear friction spring dampers and post-tensioning. Dual rocking components located on either side of the frame contain shear friction spring dampers located in series. An individual component test is performed on the shear friction spring damper. The frame system is tested at a 35% scale, and the findings are used to conduct a numerical study. To experimentally test and model the effectiveness of a dual rocking core rather than a singular rocking core.
Ma et al. 2010 Controlled rocking frame with self-centering PT strands and energy-dissipating fuses Single rocking frame configuration with PT strands and fuses located along the centerline of frame Large-scale testing was performed to further work by Eatherton et al. 2010 and a numerical analysis was conducted Provide an analytical model and validate behavior predictions through experimental testing of a controlled rocking seismic energy-dissipating system
Martin, Deierlein, and Ma 2019 Rocking Braced Frame analyzed against seismic forces with a first modal force reduced by a factor of R1. Reinforced concrete walls with posttensioning cables and effective damping system leading to an energy dissipating fuse. Analytically examine the use of the modified modal superposition method of analysis against previously examined methods of analyzing structural withstanding of seismic forces. Develop a high functioning method of analyzing structural responses to seismic forces.
Ozaki et al. 2013 Small-sized hold-downs with a built-in fuse function for energy dissipation and controlled rocking Multistory Steel sheet shear walls with HDFs implemented at column base and foundation connections The fundamental behavior of the HDFs is examined through full scale shake table testing Experimentally investigate and compare the HDF system to identical systems without the fuse device
Pollino and Bruneau 2010 Controlled rocking steel truss with passive energy dissipative devices Bridge steel truss pier with dampers located at the base Bridge steel truss pier with dampers located at the base Measure experimental quantities including displacement, strains, and member forces and compare to analytical predictions for seismic behavior
Restrepo and Rahman 2007 Self-centering structural wall allowed to rock about foundation with PT vertical strands and longitudinal energy dissipating devices Jointed precast cantilever wall Half scale tests were performed on a rocking wall and a hybrid rocking wall with energy dissipators to validate prediction models and study behavior Assessed for life safety performance objectives: prevent base sliding shear, preclude yielding of the tendons, avoid fracture of energy dissipator, prevent loss of integrity, and minimize loss of stiffness
Restrepo, Filiatrault, and Christopoulos 2004 Optimal Earthquake-resistant system: (i) Limit induced seismic forces through nonlinear characteristics of yielding, (ii) Encompass self-centering properties, (iii) Reduce cumulative damage to structural elements Optimal Earthquake-resistant system: (i) Limit induced seismic forces through nonlinear characteristics of yielding, (ii) Encompass self-centering properties, (iii) Reduce cumulative damage to structural elements Examine the background of self-centering systems and describe research regarding self-centering reinforced concrete walls, confined masonry walls, steel structures and bridge structures Briefly describe some of the latest self-centering structural systems
Restrepo, Mander, and Holden 2001 A precast concrete wall with unbonded self-centering prestressed tendons, rocking capabilities and energy-dissipating mild steel yield bars Precast concrete wall jointed at the base with prestressed partially unbonded tendons An analytical model of a 12-story cantilever wall building is tested and results are discussed, followed by the experimental testing of 5 wall specimens Provide design aspects for a structural system which looks to minimize damage and validate design experimentally
Rodgers et al. 2008 A 10-story prototype building was examined in 3 locations for energy dissipation performance and a damping device is introduced as a fuse element RC prototype building with energy-dissipating zones located at exterior PT RC connection, corner exterior PT RC connection and a steel connection Experimental testing of the proposed system was conducted for the connection details and results were discussed Validate performance of high force to volume damper in structural connections and energy dissipation
Sause et al. 2010 Self-centering CBF with rigid-body rotation of the frame and uplift resistance provided by vertically-aligned PT steel CBF with fixed gravity columns and SC-CBF columns which are separated by friction-bearing dampers The proposed system was modeled using OpenSees and experimentally tested, then compared to a limit state and performance-based seismic design procedure Evaluate seismic performance of SC-CBF and provide a performance-based seismic design procedure
Takeuchi 2011 Recent seismic design concepts project on the Tokyo Tech O-okayama campus are described including the performance of the superstructure of the library and energy-dissipating louver retrofit design for the Secretariat Building The Secretariat building is retrofitted with energy-dissipating horizontal and diagonal louvers acting as BRBs A mock-up test of the louvers was performed and the system has been implemented on the structure The paper outlines applications of ongoing research on the Tokyo Tech O-okayama campus
Wang and Filiatrault 2008 Steel plane frame with self-centering and post-tensioned strands along with fuse elements Steel plane frame with yielding elements in each beam-to-column connection Experimental testing of a fully-welded steel MRF and a SCPT frame was performed and compared Evaluate the performance of the proposed seismic resistant system
Xu, Fan, Li 2020 Prepressed spring self-centering energy dissipation (PS-SCED) braces. Two tube members interconnected by a friction energy dissipation mechanism (FEDM). Comparative analysis of conventional steel braced frames (CSBFs) and proposed PS-SCED braces in four- and eight-story steel buildings. To investigate seismic devices that minimize the need for retrofitting, demolishing and rebuilding of structures after earthquakes.
Eatherton et al. 2010 Controlled rocking frame with self-centering PT strands and energy-dissipating fuses Dual frame configuration with a center vertical spine of fuses The paper summarizes hybrid simulation testing and previous work including test on fuse topologies, FEM modeling of the fuses, a parameter study, and large-scale cyclic testing Validate the performance of the system from experimental testing and predict behavior through analytical modeling
Eatherton, Ma, Krawinkler, Deierlein, Hajjar, 2014 Elastic steel rocking frame with post-tensioning and an inelastic energy dissipating fuse. A dual frame system connected through fuse plates between the two frames with post-tensioning strands along the center of each frame. Nine half scale specimens designed using variations of the three main seismic components are tested cyclically, resulting in low inelastic deformations outside of the replaceable fuse. To experimentally determine the behavior of the system with variable components under seismic loading.
Eatherton, Ma, Krawinkler, Mar, Billington, Hajjar, and Deierlein, 2014 A rocking braced steel frame that features a rocking, inelastic steel spine, post-tensioning, and a steel energy-dissipating fuse, which can be in several different configurations. Either a single or dual frame can be used. A single frame features two energy dissipating fuses attached to the edges of the frame, while the dual frame includes energy dissipating fuses attached between two frames. Methods for determining the self-centering and energy dissipating ratios were described in order to determine the functionality of the three frame elements, and then this mode of analysis was performed on an example six story structure. Portray the findings of several researchers regarding self-centering rocking braced frames within one paper and to utilize all their findings within one form of analysis.
Specimen Information
Reference Test/Analytical Setup Test Load Conditions Description of Fuse(s) Replaceable Self-Centering System Conclusions
Azuhata, Midorikawa, and Ishihara 2008 10-story model of a conventional brace frame and the proposed self-centering model with rocking structural members were created An artificial ground motion and the 1995 JMA Kobe NS were inputted Yielding base plates Yes Yes through rocking, yielding members and self-weight It was found the vertical connection dampers arrangement plays a significant role in the seismic response and further evaluation is needed
Palermo, Pampanin, and Calvi 2004 Analytical model of three bridge systems with different mechanical properties was created Seismic response examined through push-pull cyclic and non-linear time-history analyses Modeled for yielding mild steel bars Yes Yes, through PT cables Integrating a rocking section interface can lead to significant damage reduction in the pier element and could limit repair cost to the replacement of the fuse system
Bruneau 2007 --- --- --- --- --- The paper provides an overview of developments in seismic design that incorporate rocking and energy-dissipating structural elements
Clayton et al. 2011 A numerical model was developed in OpenSees Model was subjected to suite of ground motions based on the SAC project for the Los Angeles site and a series of nonlinear response history analyses were conducted Unstiffened ductile web plates Yes Yes, provided by PT rocking beam connections The preliminary results exhibit that the SC-SPSW system could be an alternative to the traditional lateral force resisting system, but more validation is needed including experimental work
Clayton, Berman, and Lowes 2013 2-story frame loaded along the axis of the top vertical boundary element Quasi-static cyclic loading using an actuator Web plates resist lateral loads and dissipate energy through development of tension field action and yielding Yes Yes, through PT beam to column connections Tests showed that a properly designed SC-SPSW is capable of recentering when subjected to large drift demands with ductile energy dissipation and yielding occurring in the replaceable web plate elements
Dowden and Bruneau 2011 An analytical model was created using SAP2000 Cyclic nonlinear static pushover analysis was conducted and a time-history analysis was performed to verify self-centering performance Energy dissipated through rocking and PT chords Yes Yes Damage to the floor diaphragm is mitigated through rocking connection with essentially no beam growth and the system provided self-centering capabilities
Dowden, Purba, and Bruneau 2012 Free-body-force diagrams and associated equations were constructed for the system elements and compared to results from SAP2000 A cyclic nonlinear push-over analysis was conducted Steel web plate dissispates energy through the development of diagonal tension yield forces Yes Yes, through PT boundary frame The findings indicate that SC-SPSW systems could be a viable alternative to traditional lateral force-resisting systems, but further research is needed to further validate this system, including experimental work to investigate its behavior and self-centering characteristics
Freddi, Dimopoulos, and Karavasilis, 2020 Specimen with different components at the column base were subjected to a quasi-static cyclic load test until failure. Specimen with different components at the column base were subjected to a quasi-static cyclic load test until failure. Two external steel plates were bolted to a base plate, and the base plate was welded to the section. The internal plate had inclined slotted holes to allow for a bolt path. Yes Yes It was found that the specimen exhibited damage free behavior up to the target rotation, and that the damage that occurred after the target rotation was concentrated into replaceable components. Furthermore, a 3D model was calibrated based on imperfections in the base plate.
Hayashi, Skalomenos, Inamasu, Luo, 2018 Six one-quarter-scale specimens with combination of different components. A cyclic loading history incrementally imposing lateral displacements with the aid of a hydraulic jack connected at the top of the specimens. Steel fuses cut in the shape designed to focus inelasticity in the reduced section. Yes, but less effective after post-tensioned bar yielding. Yes The proposed self-centering rocking frame system showed satisfactory seismic performance and reduces permanent deformations.
Hu, Wang, Qu, and Alam (2020) An actuator is used to apply lateral loads to a 35% scale three story frame. The frame is loaded with cyclic displacement-controlled lateral loads up to a target roof drift of 6%. Dampers with concentric inner and outer components are preloaded to combat seismic loading with frictional force. No Yes, through post-tensioning The system is able to perform elastically up to a 6% roof drift. Interstory drifts are uniform and deformation is confined to the frictional dampers.
Ma et al. 2010 A 2/3 scale 3-story specimen was tested using a shake table Four test were conducted using simulated ground motions JMA Kobe NS and Northbridge Canoga Three fuse types were investigated: non-degrading butterfly fuse, degrading butterfly fuse, and buckling restrained brace Yes Yes, provided by vertical PT strands An FEM model was developed and proved accurate for predicting behavior of the system, the design criteria and constructability was exhibited, and key parameters including SC, rocking column bases and damage control were validated through experimental testing
Martin, Deierlein, and Ma 2019 Seven models with differing height, height:width ratios, and structural components. Seismic forces were conducted on the structures with the first node mimicking the maximum considered earthquake as per the Modified Modal Superposition analysis. Post Tensioning cables leading to an energy- dissipating fuse on a rocking braced frame. --- Yes, provided by vertical PT strands It was found that the Modified Modal Superposition analysis of structures has a similar percent error but is more effective than past evaluations due to the reduction of the first mode force on the structure and the implementation of a rocking braced frame.
Ozaki et al. 2013 Full-scale shake table test were performed on four 1-story single span steel sheet shear wall specimens with varying connection types Cyclic loading was conducted using the El Centro EQ and Kobe EQ records The HDF consist consists of a pair of fuse steel plates slot-welded to a U-shaped steel channel which is placed between the rocking frame and the foundation Yes Yes, through vertical gravity loads The HDFs exhibited good energy dissipation capacity and reduced base-shear and uplift deformations, but it was noted a residual displacement of 0.5 mm was found and further investigation is needed
Pollino and Bruneau 2010 1:5 Scaled bridge steel truss pier or a typical 2 lane highway bridge, tested using a shaking table Excitations from record of the 94’ Northridge EQ and a synthetically generate record were implemented Three sets of steel yielding devices and a set of fluid viscous dampers Yes, and retrofitting possibilities Yes, provided by selected damping system Experimental results showed a maximum relative pier displacement of 3.9% drift and 82 mm of uplift, but none of the structural members were damaged; also, the observed values of displacement and force were found to vary at time from the predicted results
Restrepo and Rahman 2007 Three half scale test specimens were tested; two with energy dissipating “dog-bones” and one without Specimens were subjected to quasi-static reverse cyclic loading through a double-acting actuator “Dog-bones” are machined mild steel reinforcing bars with a section of smaller diameter over a specified length; they were cast into the foundation and grouted into the wall No Yes, through gravity load and vertical prestressed unbonded tendons Hybrid rocking system provided good energy dissipation, had minimal structural damage, no residual drifts, and met all of the safety performance objectives
Restrepo, Filiatrault, and Christopoulos 2004 --- --- --- --- --- Economical earthquake-resistant structural systems with large lateral displacement capacity, minimized structural damage after displacements and self-centering capabilities were reviewed
Restrepo, Mander, and Holden 2001 Five ½ scale wall specimens, representing the walls of a prototype 4-story building, were tested using a double acting hydraulic actuator Quasi-static reverse cyclic loading to increasing drift levels was applied Mild steel bars with a milled segment in the form of a “dog-bone” Yes Yes, through prestressed partially unbonded tendons The jointed walls allowed gap opening and closing with 2.5% drift and only cosmetic damage and cycles to 4% drift with no strength degradation
Rodgers et al. 2008 A 3D RC beam-column exterior joint sub assemblage and a beam-to-column steel connection were tested using an actuator set up Quasi-static loading consisting of fully-reversed sinusoidal displacement cycles were applied High force to volume damping device (HF2V) composed of a bulged central shaft which induces a plastic flow of lead during shaft motion to provide a resistive force Yes Yes, provided by resilience of HF2V system The HF2V system provided adequate level of energy dissipation, offered high force and did not suffer from low-cycle fatigue allowing self-centering capabilities
Sause et al. 2010 0.4 scale 4-story 2-bay SC-MRF frame was tested using hydraulic actuators Numerous simulated earthquakes using the hybrid simulation method was applied Friction-bearing dampers located so that slip can occur due to the relative vertical displacement between the SC-CBF columns and gravity columns Yes Yes, provided by vertical PT strands The described performance objectives were met and related analytical predictions matched experimental results generally, also under the DBE-level ground motions no significant structural damage occurred and in all cases the structure re-centered
Takeuchi 2011 A full scale test of the louver was conducted A full scale test of the louver was conducted Louver BRBs provide energy dissipation through hysteretic damping Yes Yes, through hysteretic behavior of the louvers The structures are now designed and retrofitted to withstand level-2 earthquake and are expected to be usable after such a seismic event
Wang and Filiatrault 2008 Two 1/3 scale 3-story 2-bay frames were tested using a shake table An ensemble of 25 synthetic MCEER simulated earthquake records were used for the ground motion that was run in two series (forward and reverse) Energy-dissipating yield bars Yes Yes, through PT strands The SCPT model provided a reduction in acceleration response, ED performed accordingly minimizing damage to the beams, and overall good seismic performance was observed
Xu, Fan, Li 2020 Four-story and eight-story steel frame buildings equipped with the proposed braced system were constructed. Low reverse cyclic loading and different simulated ground motion at three hazard levels. A friction energy dissipation mechanism (FEDM) consisting inner and outer plates, nonasbestos organic friction pads, and two high-strength bolts. Yes. Yes. The proposed system demonstrated higher performance than conventional steel braced frames(CSBFs) such as reduced maximum drift ratios, smaller residual deformations and absolute peak accelerations, self-centering ability and effective energy dissipation.
Eatherton et al. 2010 A ½ scale specimen was tested under two dimensional loading using a Loading and Boundary Condition Box Quasi-static cyclic loading was applied to five dual frame configurations and two single frame configuration and quasi-static hybrid simulation loading was applied to two dual frames Yielding steel plates with diamond shaped cut-outs Yes Yes, provided by vertical PT strands Large-scale testing provided validation of the performance of the system; residual drift was minimized and the frames remained elastic while the damage was concentrated at the fuses
Eatherton, Ma, Krawinkler, Deierlein, Hajjar, 2014 Half scale three story specimens with different frame configurations, number of fuses, and post-tensioning are tested under cyclic loading. Cyclic loads with roof drifts up to 4.2%. Steel plates that contain diamond-shaped cutouts that deform at the thinnest points between the cutouts. Yes Yes, through vertical post-tensioning The system will remain elastic up to drift ratios of 4% other than the replaceable fuse component.
Eatherton, Ma, Krawinkler, Mar, Billington, Hajjar, and Deierlein, 2014 Draws equations from previous research in order to describe the process of computational analysis of self-centering steel braced frames. Calculations were performed to determine the Self- Centering (SC) and Energy- Dissipating (ED) ratios in order to find the limits for the initial PT force, the initial fuse stiffness, and the frame stiffness. Both butterfly steel fuses and Buckling Restrained Brace (BRB) fuses are analyzed, though butterfly shaped fuses are discussed within this paper. Butterfly shaped fuses involve a steel plate with slits carved into it with butterfly shaped links along the slits that connect to the rocking frame. Yes Yes Steel self centering rocking frame reduces residual drift and concentrates inelastic drift into replaceable fuses. Different configurations can be made, but they must include replaceable energy dissipating fuses, post-tensioning, and a stiff braced frame spine.