Reference |
Test/Analytical Setup |
Test Load Conditions |
Description of Fuse(s) |
Replaceable |
Self-Centering System |
Conclusions |
Azuhata, Midorikawa, and Ishihara 2008 |
10-story model of a conventional brace frame and the proposed self-centering model with rocking structural members were created |
An artificial ground motion and the 1995 JMA Kobe NS were inputted |
Yielding base plates |
Yes |
Yes through rocking, yielding members and self-weight |
It was found the vertical connection dampers arrangement plays a significant role in the seismic response and further evaluation is needed
|
Palermo, Pampanin, and Calvi 2004 |
Analytical model of three bridge systems with different mechanical properties was created |
Seismic response examined through push-pull cyclic and non-linear time-history analyses |
Modeled for yielding mild steel bars |
Yes |
Yes, through PT cables |
Integrating a rocking section interface can lead to significant damage reduction in the pier element and could limit repair cost to the replacement of the fuse system
|
Bruneau 2007 |
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The paper provides an overview of developments in seismic design that incorporate rocking and energy-dissipating structural elements
|
Clayton et al. 2011 |
A numerical model was developed in OpenSees |
Model was subjected to suite of ground motions based on the SAC project for the Los Angeles site and a series of nonlinear response history analyses were conducted |
Unstiffened ductile web plates |
Yes |
Yes, provided by PT rocking beam connections |
The preliminary results exhibit that the SC-SPSW system could be an alternative to the traditional lateral force resisting system, but more validation is needed including experimental work
|
Clayton, Berman, and Lowes 2013 |
2-story frame loaded along the axis of the top vertical boundary element |
Quasi-static cyclic loading using an actuator |
Web plates resist lateral loads and dissipate energy through development of tension field action and yielding |
Yes |
Yes, through PT beam to column connections |
Tests showed that a properly designed SC-SPSW is capable of recentering when subjected to large drift demands with ductile energy dissipation and yielding occurring in the replaceable web plate elements
|
Dowden and Bruneau 2011 |
An analytical model was created using SAP2000 |
Cyclic nonlinear static pushover analysis was conducted and a time-history analysis was performed to verify self-centering performance |
Energy dissipated through rocking and PT chords |
Yes |
Yes |
Damage to the floor diaphragm is mitigated through rocking connection with essentially no beam growth and the system provided self-centering capabilities
|
Dowden, Purba, and Bruneau 2012 |
Free-body-force diagrams and associated equations were constructed for the system elements and compared to results from SAP2000 |
A cyclic nonlinear push-over analysis was conducted |
Steel web plate dissispates energy through the development of diagonal tension yield forces |
Yes |
Yes, through PT boundary frame |
The findings indicate that SC-SPSW systems could be a viable alternative to traditional lateral force-resisting systems, but further research is needed to further validate this system, including experimental work to investigate its behavior and self-centering characteristics
|
Freddi, Dimopoulos, and Karavasilis, 2020 |
Specimen with different components at the column base were subjected to a quasi-static cyclic load test until failure. |
Specimen with different components at the column base were subjected to a quasi-static cyclic load test until failure. |
Two external steel plates were bolted to a base plate, and the base plate was welded to the section. The internal plate had inclined slotted holes to allow for a bolt path. |
Yes |
Yes |
It was found that the specimen exhibited damage free behavior up to the target rotation, and that the damage that occurred after the target rotation was concentrated into replaceable components. Furthermore, a 3D model was calibrated based on imperfections in the base plate.
|
Hayashi, Skalomenos, Inamasu, Luo, 2018 |
Six one-quarter-scale specimens with combination of different components. |
A cyclic loading history incrementally imposing lateral displacements with the aid of a hydraulic jack connected at the top of the specimens. |
Steel fuses cut in the shape designed to focus inelasticity in the reduced section. |
Yes, but less effective after post-tensioned bar yielding. |
Yes |
The proposed self-centering rocking frame system showed satisfactory seismic performance and reduces permanent deformations.
|
Hu, Wang, Qu, and Alam (2020) |
An actuator is used to apply lateral loads to a 35% scale three story frame. |
The frame is loaded with cyclic displacement-controlled lateral loads up to a target roof drift of 6%. |
Dampers with concentric inner and outer components are preloaded to combat seismic loading with frictional force. |
No |
Yes, through post-tensioning |
The system is able to perform elastically up to a 6% roof drift. Interstory drifts are uniform and deformation is confined to the frictional dampers.
|
Ma et al. 2010 |
A 2/3 scale 3-story specimen was tested using a shake table |
Four test were conducted using simulated ground motions JMA Kobe NS and Northbridge Canoga |
Three fuse types were investigated: non-degrading butterfly fuse, degrading butterfly fuse, and buckling restrained brace |
Yes |
Yes, provided by vertical PT strands |
An FEM model was developed and proved accurate for predicting behavior of the system, the design criteria and constructability was exhibited, and key parameters including SC, rocking column bases and damage control were validated through experimental testing
|
Martin, Deierlein, and Ma 2019 |
Seven models with differing height, height:width ratios, and structural components. |
Seismic forces were conducted on the structures with the first node mimicking the maximum considered earthquake as per the Modified Modal Superposition analysis. |
Post Tensioning cables leading to an energy- dissipating fuse on a rocking braced frame. |
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Yes, provided by vertical PT strands |
It was found that the Modified Modal Superposition analysis of structures has a similar percent error but is more effective than past evaluations due to the reduction of the first mode force on the structure and the implementation of a rocking braced frame.
|
Ozaki et al. 2013 |
Full-scale shake table test were performed on four 1-story single span steel sheet shear wall specimens with varying connection types |
Cyclic loading was conducted using the El Centro EQ and Kobe EQ records |
The HDF consist consists of a pair of fuse steel plates slot-welded to a U-shaped steel channel which is placed between the rocking frame and the foundation |
Yes |
Yes, through vertical gravity loads |
The HDFs exhibited good energy dissipation capacity and reduced base-shear and uplift deformations, but it was noted a residual displacement of 0.5 mm was found and further investigation is needed
|
Pollino and Bruneau 2010 |
1:5 Scaled bridge steel truss pier or a typical 2 lane highway bridge, tested using a shaking table |
Excitations from record of the 94’ Northridge EQ and a synthetically generate record were implemented |
Three sets of steel yielding devices and a set of fluid viscous dampers |
Yes, and retrofitting possibilities |
Yes, provided by selected damping system |
Experimental results showed a maximum relative pier displacement of 3.9% drift and 82 mm of uplift, but none of the structural members were damaged; also, the observed values of displacement and force were found to vary at time from the predicted results
|
Restrepo and Rahman 2007 |
Three half scale test specimens were tested; two with energy dissipating “dog-bones” and one without |
Specimens were subjected to quasi-static reverse cyclic loading through a double-acting actuator |
“Dog-bones” are machined mild steel reinforcing bars with a section of smaller diameter over a specified length; they were cast into the foundation and grouted into the wall |
No |
Yes, through gravity load and vertical prestressed unbonded tendons |
Hybrid rocking system provided good energy dissipation, had minimal structural damage, no residual drifts, and met all of the safety performance objectives
|
Restrepo, Filiatrault, and Christopoulos 2004 |
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Economical earthquake-resistant structural systems with large lateral displacement capacity, minimized structural damage after displacements and self-centering capabilities were reviewed
|
Restrepo, Mander, and Holden 2001 |
Five ½ scale wall specimens, representing the walls of a prototype 4-story building, were tested using a double acting hydraulic actuator |
Quasi-static reverse cyclic loading to increasing drift levels was applied |
Mild steel bars with a milled segment in the form of a “dog-bone” |
Yes |
Yes, through prestressed partially unbonded tendons |
The jointed walls allowed gap opening and closing with 2.5% drift and only cosmetic damage and cycles to 4% drift with no strength degradation
|
Rodgers et al. 2008 |
A 3D RC beam-column exterior joint sub assemblage and a beam-to-column steel connection were tested using an actuator set up |
Quasi-static loading consisting of fully-reversed sinusoidal displacement cycles were applied |
High force to volume damping device (HF2V) composed of a bulged central shaft which induces a plastic flow of lead during shaft motion to provide a resistive force |
Yes |
Yes, provided by resilience of HF2V system |
The HF2V system provided adequate level of energy dissipation, offered high force and did not suffer from low-cycle fatigue allowing self-centering capabilities
|
Sause et al. 2010 |
0.4 scale 4-story 2-bay SC-MRF frame was tested using hydraulic actuators |
Numerous simulated earthquakes using the hybrid simulation method was applied |
Friction-bearing dampers located so that slip can occur due to the relative vertical displacement between the SC-CBF columns and gravity columns |
Yes |
Yes, provided by vertical PT strands |
The described performance objectives were met and related analytical predictions matched experimental results generally, also under the DBE-level ground motions no significant structural damage occurred and in all cases the structure re-centered
|
Takeuchi 2011 |
A full scale test of the louver was conducted |
A full scale test of the louver was conducted |
Louver BRBs provide energy dissipation through hysteretic damping |
Yes |
Yes, through hysteretic behavior of the louvers |
The structures are now designed and retrofitted to withstand level-2 earthquake and are expected to be usable after such a seismic event
|
Wang and Filiatrault 2008 |
Two 1/3 scale 3-story 2-bay frames were tested using a shake table |
An ensemble of 25 synthetic MCEER simulated earthquake records were used for the ground motion that was run in two series (forward and reverse) |
Energy-dissipating yield bars |
Yes |
Yes, through PT strands |
The SCPT model provided a reduction in acceleration response, ED performed accordingly minimizing damage to the beams, and overall good seismic performance was observed
|
Xu, Fan, Li 2020 |
Four-story and eight-story steel frame buildings equipped with the proposed braced system were constructed. |
Low reverse cyclic loading and different simulated ground motion at three hazard levels. |
A friction energy dissipation mechanism (FEDM) consisting inner and outer plates, nonasbestos organic friction pads, and two high-strength bolts. |
Yes. |
Yes. |
The proposed system demonstrated higher performance than conventional steel braced frames(CSBFs) such as reduced maximum drift ratios, smaller residual deformations and absolute peak accelerations, self-centering ability and effective energy dissipation.
|
Eatherton et al. 2010 |
A ½ scale specimen was tested under two dimensional loading using a Loading and Boundary Condition Box |
Quasi-static cyclic loading was applied to five dual frame configurations and two single frame configuration and quasi-static hybrid simulation loading was applied to two dual frames |
Yielding steel plates with diamond shaped cut-outs |
Yes |
Yes, provided by vertical PT strands |
Large-scale testing provided validation of the performance of the system; residual drift was minimized and the frames remained elastic while the damage was concentrated at the fuses
|
Eatherton, Ma, Krawinkler, Deierlein, Hajjar, 2014 |
Half scale three story specimens with different frame configurations, number of fuses, and post-tensioning are tested under cyclic loading. |
Cyclic loads with roof drifts up to 4.2%. |
Steel plates that contain diamond-shaped cutouts that deform at the thinnest points between the cutouts. |
Yes |
Yes, through vertical post-tensioning |
The system will remain elastic up to drift ratios of 4% other than the replaceable fuse component.
|
Eatherton, Ma, Krawinkler, Mar, Billington, Hajjar, and Deierlein, 2014 |
Draws equations from previous research in order to describe the process of computational analysis of self-centering steel braced frames. |
Calculations were performed to determine the Self- Centering (SC) and Energy- Dissipating (ED) ratios in order to find the limits for the initial PT force, the initial fuse stiffness, and the frame stiffness. |
Both butterfly steel fuses and Buckling Restrained Brace (BRB) fuses are analyzed, though butterfly shaped fuses are discussed within this paper. Butterfly shaped fuses involve a steel plate with slits carved into it with butterfly shaped links along the slits that connect to the rocking frame. |
Yes |
Yes |
Steel self centering rocking frame reduces residual drift and concentrates inelastic drift into replaceable fuses. Different configurations can be made, but they must include replaceable energy dissipating fuses, post-tensioning, and a stiff braced frame spine.
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